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Fish Welfare

Mapping salmon welfare: a global overview

Hannah McKay, Sagar Shah
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For any queries, please contact hannah@rethinkpriorities.org

Mapping Salmon Welfare series

The Mapping Salmon Welfare series comprises short reports based on time-boxed reviews of academic and gray literature. We spent around one week reviewing evidence on each topic, and another one to two weeks writing up and editing findings. The reports are intended to provide factual information about key welfare issues salmon may face on farms rather than definitive, comprehensive analyses.

This first report in the series is a short, factual report that describes the broad patterns of the global salmon farming industry, including:

  • The number of salmon farmed
  • A brief description of how salmon are farmed
  • Top producing countries, their certification coverage and key characteristics
  • Top consuming countries and trade flows
  • Overarching industry traits and trends

This report is intended to be informative and does not provide recommendations for different stakeholders. Throughout, “salmon” refers only to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

Executive summary

  • Around 500 million salmon are farmed annually.
  • Approximately 10–15% die pre-slaughter in the sea phase alone (excluding juveniles).
  • Production concentrates heavily in Norway and Chile, which together account for 81% of global farmed salmon individuals:
    • Norway produces 52% of global salmon under relatively strict regulations, with the government targeting 5% mortality for adult fish.
    • Chile produces 29% and has experienced catastrophic mortality events from infectious salmon anemia (2010) and harmful algal blooms (2016), prompting regulatory reforms.
    • Scotland, the Faroe Islands, and Canada together produce 13% and occupy specialized market niches.
  • Alongside geographic concentration, production is also consolidated in companies, with roughly 25 companies responsible for 80% of global tonnage in 2024.
  • Production is characterized by two main stages: hatchery and sea. The transfer from freshwater hatcheries to marine net pens—which occurs at the time of smoltification (at around 10–18 months of age)—represents a particularly high-risk period for mortality.
  • The US and EU are the largest consumer markets for farmed salmon:
    • Trade routes are generally determined by proximity because most farmed salmon is sold fresh after slaughter (and is therefore perishable).
  • The industry may have largely reached biological and geographic limits, suggesting future growth could be dependent on technological innovation.

Over 500 million salmon are farmed annually

The global farmed salmon industry processed approximately 530 million Atlantic salmon in 2022[1], with an estimated 1.2 billion salmon alive across all production stages at any given time.[2]

Mortality rates in the sea phase (excluding juvenile mortality) are around 15% in Norway, and around 10% in Chile.[3] Common causes of premature death for farmed salmon include diseases, environmental conditions (e.g., algal blooms), and stress from crowding and sea lice treatments (see our upcoming short report).

The Global Salmon Initiative, a collaboration between major salmon farming businesses to promote sustainable practices, collects and publishes mortality data from its member companies—these can be seen in Figure 1. The data suggest that mortality can appreciably differ between companies and years, and that mortality rates are generally in the range of 5–15%. Mowi, the largest salmon farming company globally but not part of the Global Salmon Initiative, reports an annual mortality of 16.2% for 2024 across their locations (14.7% in Norway, 6.8% in the Faroe Islands).[4]

Figure 1: Mortality rates from 2013 to 2024 reported by companies part of the Global Salmon Initiative (GSI). Note that there is not enough data for Scotland to present confidence ranges. Because not all companies are part of GSI, the data likely does not represent true country-level ranges. The number of companies present in the data in 2024 is given next to the country name.

There are two main stages in salmon production: hatchery and sea (Figure 2). In the hatchery stage, mortality is frequently high. In Norway in 2024, almost 46 million juvenile salmon were reported dead in hatcheries,[5] which is around 10.5% of juveniles produced.[6]

Another period of particularly high mortality is when juvenile salmon are first transferred to sea pens. This occurs during a sensitive developmental period for salmon, known as smoltification.

In the wild, salmon are born in freshwater and migrate to seawater. Smoltification is the process by which salmon become physiologically adapted to seawater. This migration is mimicked in farming, with farmers transferring juveniles from freshwater hatcheries to marine net pens (netted cages that are in the sea near the coast) once they reach smoltification, often between 10–18 months old.[7] This transition is one of the most demanding and critical developmental periods in a salmon’s life. Improper smoltification is a large cause of mortality,[8] due to the physiological pressures on smoltifying salmon, along with the stresses of transportation, handling, and dealing with a new environment.[9]

Figure 2: Overview of the salmon farming process. Based on Mowi (2021, p. 113), SalMar (2024, p. 13), and Icelandic Salmon (2023, p. 14)

After the hatchery stage, the vast majority of farmed salmon are raised in marine net pens. However, a small proportion of salmon are also raised in closed-containment systems, such as Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS).[10] These facilities are indoor, fully enclosed tanks. In RAS, the water is circulated out of the tank, treated, and used again.[11] Closed-containment systems are usually favored for near-complete control of environmental conditions and biosecurity. However, they require significant upfront capital and may bring their own welfare costs to salmon.

For the majority of salmon transferred to marine net pens, the sea phase lasts around 10–24 months. Potential welfare harms during this period include diseases, sea lice and related treatments, high stocking densities,[12] handling, and environment-related problems such as algal blooms, jellyfish, and storms. Once the salmon reach slaughter size, they are transported to harvest facilities and typically percussively or electrically stunned as part of the slaughter process.[13] We view automated percussive stunning as a more humane approach because an effective percussive blow can instantly stun and kill a salmon.[14] Commercial electrical stunners typically require a follow-up kill method, and risk inhumane outcomes if salmon recover consciousness prior to death.

Five regions are responsible for 94% of farmed salmon

Salmon farming only takes place in a few locations globally. Only around 10 to 15 countries farmed any salmon in 2023.[15] Moreover, production is heavily concentrated in the top producers, with five regions responsible for approximately 94% of farmed salmon individuals in 2023 (Figure 3). Norway and Chile alone account for around 81% of individuals harvested that year.

Figure 3: (A) Estimated number of farmed salmon individuals harvested in 2023 by country. Based on Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2025a) and calculated using Mood & Brooke’s (2024) weight ranges for salmon. Note that no weight range is given for Chilean salmon, resulting in no error bar for this country. (B) Tonnages of salmon produced by different countries from 1950–2023. Based on FAO (2025a).

Norway alone produces over half the world’s salmon

Since the 1970s, Norway has been the world’s largest farmed salmon producer. Today, Norway produces around 52% of global harvested farmed salmon individuals.[16] Approximately 91% of salmon tonnage produced in Norway is GlobalGAP certified,[17] and 65% is Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) certified, though this varies depending on certified farm productivity per year.[18]

According to the Norwegian Veterinary Institute’s Fish Health Report survey,[19] the largest welfare and mortality-causing issues in the country are infectious diseases, injuries from sea lice treatments, and jellyfish.

The Norwegian Government recently set a target to reduce country-wide aquaculture mortality to 5% for adult fish.[20]

Chile’s stable temperatures enable year-round production but also present risks

Chile produced around 29% of salmon individuals in 2023.[21] Marine temperatures are relatively more stable and warmer in Chile than Norway. As salmon are ectothermic, temperature is very influential on growth rate. A uniform year-round temperature allows for more consistent growth in farmed salmon, often enabling somewhat shorter production times.[22] However, higher temperatures are also a risk factor for diseases and algal blooms.

Chilean production has been marked by significant downturns, first in 2010 from infectious salmon anemia,[23] and again in 2016 due to harmful algal blooms (Figure 4).[24]

Figure 4: Tonnes of salmon produced annually in Chile, 1950–2023. Based on FAO (2025a).

The infectious salmon anemia outbreak may have been caused in part by the industry’s rapid growth in the years prior, outpacing government regulation and knowledge sharing about biosecurity practices.[25]

In 2016, warm weather led to a harmful algal bloom, where algae grew quickly, diminished oxygen, and released toxins that poison salmon. Mortality rates increased during this time, often to over 10% (based on companies part of the Global Salmon Initiative: Figure 5). These blooms resulted in the deaths of an estimated 27 million salmon and trout.[26]

Figure 5: Salmon mortality in Chile as reported by Chilean companies (N = 8) part of the Global Salmon Initiative

In response to these mortality events, regulations were introduced around coordinated sanitary management areas, spatial planning of farms, stocking densities, and, more recently, a system only allowing farms to grow if they pass an assessment.[27]

To address some of the ongoing welfare challenges Chilean salmon face, the government is preparing a new General Aquaculture Law with “animal health and welfare” as one of eight key pillars, following public consultations. However, the timeline for implementation is uncertain.[28]

Scotland, Faroe Islands, and Canada occupy specialized niches

The United Kingdom, primarily Scotland, produced around 32 million salmon in 2023, around 6% of global harvested salmon individuals.[29]

Salmon from Scotland has traditionally been priced higher than Norwegian salmon.[30] However, recent legal challenges question whether this premium remains justified, with a recent ruling finding that Scottish and Norwegian salmon are not a meaningfully distinct product.[31]

The Scottish industry maintains high certification coverage (approximately 90% Code of Good Practice, 70% RSPCA, 53% ASC, ~94% GlobalGAP[32]), though critics argue this masks ongoing welfare challenges.[33] The Scottish Government recently announced that it intends to provide official guidance for the welfare of farmed fish.[34]

In the Faroe Islands, around 19 million salmon were harvested in 2023 (approximately 4% of global farmed salmon).[35] Only three companies operate in the Faroe Islands: Bakkafrost, Mowi, and Hiddenfjord. All Faroese production is certified by GlobalGAP; Bakkafrost and Mowi are ASC certified; and Hiddenfjord is BAP certified.

Canada produces around 16 million salmon annually (around 3% of global salmon).[36] Production and regulation, and therefore welfare, vary between the different Canadian coasts.

In British Columbia, the government is set to ban marine net pen farming in 2029, pushing the local salmon farming industry to land-based and closed-containment systems (such as RAS).[37]

While primarily motivated by environmental considerations, this transition could, at least in theory, have the potential to improve individual salmon welfare, as these systems offer greater control over water quality, disease prevention, and fish handling compared to marine pens. However, whether welfare is adequately protected in RAS remains unclear, and there are not yet welfare-specific standards for these novel production systems (see Industry trends below).

US and EU markets drive global demand

The US and Europe are the largest consumer markets for farmed salmon (Figure 6). The US is the largest importer, while Norway, Sweden, and Finland have the highest per capita consumption[38] (between 6–8kg whole fish equivalent per capita, approximately one to two salmon fish per capita annually[39]). Brazil and China are emerging markets.[40]

Figure 6: Top 50% of export routes of salmon produced by the top 5 farmed salmon producers.

The majority of salmon is traded as a fresh product rather than frozen—FAO (2025b) data suggests around 93% of salmon tonnage traded in 2022 was fresh and 7% frozen. Because fresh products deteriorate quickly, salmon trade routes are predominantly determined by proximity to the producing country, with little transatlantic trade (Figure 7).[41] This means that the US is predominantly supplied by Chile and Canada, while Norway, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands supply the EU.

Figure 7: Top 50% of export routes of (A) fresh and (B) frozen salmon produced by the five largest farmed salmon producers. The majority of farmed salmon are sold fresh. Arrow thickness represents trade volume relative to the rest of the arrows in each graph.

Industry trends: Intensification and consolidation

The salmon farming industry has consolidated substantially over the past two decades, with larger companies controlling an increasing share of production.[42] Globally, roughly 25 companies are responsible for around 80% of salmon production by tonnage. The top 5 companies are responsible for approximately 45% of global farmed salmon tonnage.[43] One driver of larger-sized companies is the capacity to adopt new technologies that make production more efficient.

While salmon farming has expanded rapidly since the 1990s, current growth trajectories suggest more modest expansion ahead. The FAO and Mowi both project 3% growth in global supply for 2025, driven primarily by Norwegian production.[44]

Mowi reports that the industry has largely reached the biological limits of salmon production.[45] While geographic expansion could propel growth, only a few coastal locations are suitable for raising salmon, whose optimal conditions are temperatures between 8 and 14oc (46–57oF) and somewhat sheltered marine waters (e.g., fjords). Therefore, there are not many locations with ideal conditions.

Future industry growth is therefore largely dependent on technological innovation. One development that could get around geographical limitations is indoor RAS. Other benefits of RAS include sheltering salmon from diseases, including sea lice, and that salmon are easier to access and assess. There are, however, welfare costs of RAS farms too—see the Welfare Footprint Institute’s upcoming book on salmon welfare in RAS. Future shifts in industry systems, technologies, and practices could represent an important transition where advocates should work to ensure animal welfare is kept in mind.

See our upcoming salmon welfare reports on sea lice treatments, stocking densities, and automated percussive stunning prevalence to learn more about key salmon welfare issues.

 

Acknowledgements

This report is a project of Rethink Priorities—a think-and-do tank dedicated to informing decisions made by high-impact organizations and funders across various cause areas. Hannah McKay did the academic and gray literature review and wrote the report. Sagar Shah oversaw the project. Thanks to Sophie Williamson and George Bridgwater for feedback, Shane Coburn for copyediting, and Urszula Zarosa for assistance with publishing the report online and dissemination.

Footnotes

  1. Mood and Brooke (2024) data for 2022 ↑
  2. According to our own estimates updating Mood and Brooke’s (2019) data for 2015 with FAO tonnage data from 2022 ↑
  3. Moldal et al. (2025, p. 25); AquaBench (2024, p. 1) ↑
  4. Mowi (2025, p. 34) ↑
  5. Moldal et al. (2025, p. 22). Note that this figure only includes fish over 3g in weight. Mortality could be especially high in salmon below this threshold. We were unable to find similar data for Chilean salmon hatcheries. ↑
  6. Calculated using the number of juveniles reported dead and the number of smolts transferred to sea (Moldal et al., 2025, p. 19, p. 22) ↑
  7. Mowi (2025, p. 55) ↑
  8. Moldal et al. (2025, p. 36); SERNAPESCA (2019, p. 34) ↑
  9. See The Welfare Footprint Institute’s upcoming book on juvenile salmon welfare. ↑
  10. While we found no specific estimate of the proportion of salmon raised in RAS ongrowing systems, Mowi have reported that “only limited volumes have been harvested on land” for at least the past five years (Mowi, 2020, p.27; 2025, p.28). ↑
  11. The recirculating rate is usually not 100%, with some water added in from outside the facility, to maintain water quality. ↑
  12. See our upcoming short reports on the welfare harms of sea lice treatments and stocking density prevalences. ↑
  13. A small proportion of farms use CO2 infused in water to slaughter salmon, but this is largely being phased out (Compassion in Food Business, n.d.). ↑
  14. See our upcoming short report on percussive stunning prevalence. ↑
  15. FAO (2025a); Mowi (2025, p. 83) ↑
  16. Based on FAO (2025a) for tonnage, number of individuals calculated using Mood and Brooke’s (2024) weight ranges for salmon ↑
  17. A certification scheme is a program that sets criteria that a producer must comply with to be certified. Often, the standards relate to sustainability, food safety, human labor rights, and animal welfare. ↑
  18. Animal Ask (2025) ↑
  19. Moldal et al. (2025, p. 215) ↑
  20. Global Salmon Initiative (2025) ↑
  21. See Footnote 14 ↑
  22. Mowi (2025, p. 57) ↑
  23. The outbreak began in 2007–2008 but because production cycles are long, harvest volumes were not affected until 2010. FAO (2010); World Bank (2014). ↑
  24. Souto Cavalli et al. (2023) ↑
  25. World Bank (2014) ↑
  26. Quiñones et al (2019); Montes et al (2018) ↑
  27. Acuiestudios (2023); Mowi (2025, p. 92) ↑
  28. Molinari (2025) ↑
  29. Based on FAO (2025a) for tonnage. The number of individuals was calculated using Mood and Brooke’s (2024) weight ranges for salmon. ↑
  30. Mowi (2025, p. 48) ↑
  31. Duncan (2025) ↑
  32. All numbers from Animal Ask (2025) ↑
  33. WildFish (2025) ↑
  34. Scottish Government (2025, p. 4) ↑
  35. See Footnote 27 ↑
  36. See Footnote 27 ↑
  37. Williams (2024) ↑
  38. Mowi (2025, p. 43–44) ↑
  39. Assuming a loss of 6% of body weight from harvest (Mowi, 2025, p. 116) and that salmon weights are in the range presented by Mood and Brook (2024) for Norway ↑
  40. See Footnote 38 ↑
  41. Mowi (2025, p. 42) ↑
  42. Pandey et al. (2023) ↑
  43. According to numbers given in Mowi (2025, p. 51) ↑
  44. FAO (2025c); Mowi (2025, p.27) ↑
  45. Mowi (2025, p.27); Asche et al. (2013, fig. 5–8) ↑

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